U.S. crude oil exports averaged 1.1 million barrels per day (b/d) in 2017, an increase of 527,000 b/d from 2016. This acceleration in export growth happened despite the fact that U.S. Gulf Coast ports cannot fully load Very Large Crude Carriers (VLCC), the largest and most economic vessels used for crude oil transportation. Instead, export growth was achieved by using smaller and less cost-effective ships. Although much of the current focus has been on pipeline constraints limiting the amount of crude oil that can reach the U.S. Gulf Coast, potential shipping limitations are also relevant. …